Outline and Evaluate the Working Memory Model - 1210 Words

In 1974 the researchers Baddeley and Hitch argued that the picture of short-term memory (STM) provided by the Multi-Store Model was far too simple. Following the Multi-Store Model, it is believed that STM holds limited amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little processing, it is believed to be a unitary store. This means that due to its single store it has no subsystems, unlike the Working Memory Model which has many subsystems. This proves that the Working Memory is not a unitary store. Working Memory is STM. In contrast to the Multi-Store Model, where all the information goes to one single store (Unitary store), there are different systems for the different types of information. Working Memory consists of†¦show more content†¦This supports the idea of an immediate memory store for items that are neither visual nor phonological and that draw on long-term memory to link the related words. It is used as both the Phonological Loop and the Visuo-Spa tial Sketch Pad have specific roles and the Central Executive has very limited storage capacity so as a result there was no where to store both visual and acoustic information. The Episodic Buffer is an extra storage system that has in common with all working memory units, a limited capacity. It is handy and can integrate information from the Central Executive, The Phonological Loop, The Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad and also information from the Long-Term Memory. Researchers such as Logie, Baddeley and Bunge generally agree that the short-term memory is made up of a number of components or subsystems. The working memory model has replaced the idea of a unitary store short-term memory as suggested by the multistore model. The working memory model explains a lot more and in a lot more detail than the multistore model. It makes sense a range of tasks- verbal reasoning, comprehension, reading, problem solving and visual and spatial processing, it also applies to real life tasks such as reading which involves the phonological loop subsystem, problem solving which involves the central executive and navigation which involves the visual and spatial subsystem. The Working Memory Model is supported byShow MoreRelatedQuestions On The Ethical Tension1415 Words   |  6 Pagesbeen experiencing short term memory loss, concentration problems and nightmares. Donna has become a public speaker on educating people about anesthesia awareness. Her story is the b asis for constructing this report for registered nurses, a framework on how to work through this type of ethical situation. Decision Making Framework and Process Ethical decision making begins with understanding when adverse situations arise. The Canadian Nurse’s Association (CNA) outlines seven ethical responsibilitiesRead MoreThe Effects Of Trauma On Children And Professional Adults Essay882 Words   |  4 PagesBased on the Perry reading that outlines the effects of trauma on children (2003) that outlines the alarm reactions, responses to threat, post-traumatic stress, emotional memory impact, numbing, avoidance, hyperarousal and disassociation responses to trauma, it is quite evident that mindfulness would be quite helpful to help youth process their emotions and experiences in a healthy and productive manner. Since traumatic experiences have such a large impact on one’s psychological, emotional and physicalRead MoreCase Study Of The Assistance To The Elderly761 Words   |  4 Pagesquantitative data. Create and implement new procedures demonstrating the impact by utilization of inputs, outputs, outcomes, assumptions, and contextual factors from each program. 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(12 Marks) There are roughly four models of memory in total, but two stand out and are used in this particular specification. Atkinson and Schifrin’s (1968) â€Å"Multi-Store Model† is one of them. Their model suggests that the memory consists of three stores, a sensory store, a short-term store and a long-term store; all three have a specific and relatively inflexible function. It stressed that information for our environment such as the visual or auditoryRead MoreNetwork Virtualization, Data Centres And Performance Of Internal Network1670 Words   |  7 PagesCentres A data centre consists of a set of powerful computer servers, storage, databases, etc. connected by high-speed bandwidth links. Clients are provided a subset of the data centre’s resources for running their applications. Computing based on this model is referred to as Cloud Computing. Virtualization has been applied for data centres giving rise to the concept of Virtual Data Centres (VDC). Just as data centres have a server as the basic unit of allocation, a VDC has a virtual machine (VM) as theRead MoreManaging and Responding to Behaviour in a Learning Environment2433 Words   |  10 Pagesenvironment Use your experience of teaching as a source for describing a range of behaviours and analyse their impact on learners learning. The Education and Inspections Act 2006 brought in new clear-cut legal powers for schools and for those working within them when they are dealing with the behaviour and discipline of pupils. This includes promoting good behaviour and programmes of reward and recognition, as well as dealing effectively with negative behaviour. Teaching on the Osteopathic MedicineRead MoreFunctions Of The Nervous System1797 Words   |  8 Pagesperforming vital bodily functions. (4) As the information-processing units of the nervous system, neurons acquire information from sensory receptors, pass the information on to other neurons, and make muscles move to produce behaviours. They encode memories and produce our thoughts and emotions. There are three general classifications of neurons; these are sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons. They differ significantly in function and slightly in structure, all having the same basic configurationRead MoreA Experimental Investigation Examined Short Term Memory Capacity Differences1917 Words   |  8 Pagesexperimental investigation examined short term memory capacity differences in males and females. This was done by exposing subjects to random and sequenced visual, haptic and auditory sequences. It also explored the effect of memory retention techniques on the capacity of short term memory. The results obtained show that sequences are more effectively recalled when shown visually to a subject and in accordance with Miller’s number short term memory is limited to 7 plus/minus 2 items. Results alsoRead MoreAn Analysis Of Recommendation Algorithms3557 Words   |  15 Pagesexplore and evaluate the algorithms which influence how recommendation systems operate. Following the submission of our project proposal a month ago, our project has changed course. Given our team s relative inexperience in the field of recommendation systems, we are now interested in conducting an analysis to fully understand how the various recommendation methods and techniques perform with mutliple datasets. This status report will explain the new methods we intend to evaluate and introduce

A Long Walk to Freedom †Nelson Mandela Free Essays

string(33) " from the British and the Dutch\." Nelson Mandela in his book, Long Walk to Freedom argues through the first five parts that a black individual must deal, coop, and grow through a society that is hindering their lives† with apartheid and suppression of their rightful land. Rolihlanla Mphakanyiswa or clan name, Madiba was born on July 18, 1918 in a simple village of Mvezo, which was not accustomed to the happenings of South Africa as a whole. His father was an respected man who led a good life, but lost it because of a dispute with the magistrate. We will write a custom essay sample on A Long Walk to Freedom – Nelson Mandela or any similar topic only for you Order Now While, his mother was a hard-working woman full of daily choirs. His childhood was full of playing games with fellow children and having fun. In school, Mandela was given his English name of Nelson. After his father†s death, he moved to love with a regent, who was a well-off individual and owed Nelson†s father for a previous favor. The next several years were full of schooling for Nelson. These schools opened Nelson†s eyes to many things, which we will discuss later. He and the regent†s son, Justice decided to travel to Johannesburg and see what work they could find. They left on their journey without the regent†s permission, but eventually escaped his power and settled down in the town. In Johannesburg, Nelson settled down in a law firm as an assistant and went to University of South Africa and Witwatersrand University to further his law education. Witswatersrand University brought many new ideas to Nelson and awakened a spirit inside of him. The next several years, Nelson met many new political friends and began his involvement in the ANC. Also during this time, he met Evelyn and they became married. Gradually Nelson†s political involvement grew and his family life declined. Nelson and his good friend, Oliver Tambo opened a law firm, which took up most of Nelson†s time. Evelyn mothered two of Nelson†s children, but the gradually grew apart. Now, Nelson was an influential political individual and bans and jailing began to follow him around. One day, a young woman came into his life by the name of Winnie and they got married. Winnie gave birth to two more of Nelson†s children. As time passed, Nelson†s spirit for freedom grew more and more each day. Though his life was full of bannings and jailings, he never gave up his fight, but he knew that the south African government was becoming agitated with him and the ANC. The South African government became ruthless and strict and this forced Nelson to leave his family. After he left his family, he went underground. Nelson†s life has been full of hardships and decisions, but his heart for the struggle has never faltered. Now let us examine Nelson in closer detail. Nelson is an individual who fought through many hardships, but was also faced with decisions that affected his future, his family, and his livelihood. As we look at Nelson deeper, we can see many interesting points. He was opened to new ideas and beliefs through his experiences in the schools of Heraldtown and Fort Hare, but knew there was something better. He decided to travel to Johannesburg to find new and greater opportunities. While, in Johannesburg, he believed education would be a key asset. While working for a small firm, he took classes at University of South Africa and eventually Wits University. Here is where his mind and social life flourished. He interacted with great minds and influential political individuals. He talked to many Africans without proper education, who contained more knowledge and better social skills than many Africans with education. But, he still persisted in acquiring his B. A. Wits University brought his life to new extents. He was also talking to Indians, Coloureds, and whites for the first time in his life and Becoming friends with many more prominent African individuals. Nelson soon joined the ANC and became very prominent in the fight for freedom. Nelson was always open to listening to new ideas, but when his was just starting his fight. He believed that just Africans should fight the struggle and that the Indians, Coloureds, and communists would hinder their fight. As the ANC grew, Nelson also became well known. He was part of the Youth League, another beneficial part of the ANC. Nelson was not president yet, but was powerful enough to voice is opinions, which many people listened to and believed in. As Nelson†s political involvement grew, the police became more aware of him. Nelson received ban after ban, which ranged from months to years. He also experienced jail time constantly. Eventually, the police†s pursuit of him forced him to go underground. Nelson was also becoming more open-minded. He now believed that the fight should involve the Indians and the Coloureds. He also believed that Communism did have some good points, but he would never accept the whole communism aspect. There were many freedom fighters in South Africa. One that stood out was Dr. Xuma. Dr. Xuma was friend of Nelson and the president of the ANC, but the struggle forces many hardships on one†s life. Nelson gave everything up to pursue his fight for freedom. He left his family, his prospering law firm, and his past for the struggle. Dr. Xuma believed in the same ideas as Nelson, but would not give up his prominence with the whites and his wealthy occupation for the struggle. This decision had to be made by many freedom fighters. Nelson gave his life for the fight. While, Dr. Xuma thought his career was more important. Now let us look closer at some issues seen through Mandela†s book. Through this paragraph, I will compare foreign influence seen in Long Walk to Freedom to foreign influence seen in Mexico through Professor Hornibrook†s lectures and notes. As I have seen through your lectures, South Africa was affected by foreign influence from the British and the Dutch. You read "A Long Walk to Freedom – Nelson Mandela" in category "Papers" Mandela†s autobiography helps give more detailed accounts of the European influence seen in South Africa. Ever since Mandela was born, the European†s power affected his people. European influence could be seen through every aspect of life. In Mandela†s school, he was given an English name and this was because â€Å"this was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. â€Å"(14) Also, â€Å"the education I received was a British education, in which British ideas, British culture, British institutions were automatically assumed to be superior. There was no such thing as African culture. â€Å"(14) This shows that it was difficult to get away from the British influence even for children in school. The British and the Dutch governments passed several acts that were instituted to fight against the Africans freedom struggle. The Africans struggle for independence was slowly growing and this scared the government. A new term was being seen and it was called â€Å"apartheid. † The government enacted laws and acts that prohibited Africans from doing Many things that were vital to their fight and survival. The Group Areas Act was one example. This act called for each racial group to be separated into separate areas. Another act was the Population Registration Act, which showed that race had become the most important and influential aspect of South African law and society. Another act was the Suppression of Communism Act. This act called for all communists to be brought to trial. The police could arrest anyone they believed were trying to overthrow the government by violence and communist ways. Lastly, the government put bans on individuals who were becoming to involved in the struggle and finally the government banned the ANC and all other liberation groups. This ban now made freedom fighting was illegal in South Africa. The effect of foreign influence was drastic. Africans lost sense of African culture in schools. While, the foreign government tried everything to break down the Africans chance for liberty. The foreign influence seen in South Africa crushed the African†s hope and survival. While this was occurring in South Africa, Mexico was also seeing the effect of foreign influence. Americans and Europeans came into Mexico and gained much power. Haciendas helped their rise and foreign investment in many minerals and oil. But, Mexico did not approve of this and changed it. In 1917, Mexico created a new constitution, which limited foreign investment and promised land reform. This showed that Mexico did not want an overpopulation of foreigners and would not allow it. While, in oil, the foreigners controlled much of the oil, which Mexico had an abundance of. In 1938, oil workers went on strike and the companies would not give in, but instead of allowing foreign influence to become too powerful. The Mexican leader, Cardenas sent in arbitrators. The arbitrators called for the one/third pay increase, but the companies refused. Therefore, Cardenas nationalized oil and limited the power of foreign influence in Mexico. Now, Mexican oil was controlled by PEMEX, which is controlled only by Mexico. Mexico become a large influence in the oil market during the oil crisis, but also went though hyperinflation and eventually needed some foreign help. But, the Mexicans would not allow foreign influences to dominate the Mexican state as foreigners have affected South Africa. Now I will examine another issue seen in the book. In this paragraph, I will examine the movement seen in Long Walk to Freedom to the movement seen in China during the 1900†³s. In South Africa, the movement I saw was the Africans fighting for freedom. In their time of struggle, they had little help from those with power. The liberation movement involved peasants, educated, and well-off Africans. But, the government did what ever they could to put down this struggle. They set up organizations, such as the ANC, Youth League, and others, but as seen in other places the wealthy and powerful would not help the struggle. Many people were blind to the struggle. â€Å"Most of these wardresses had no idea why we were in prison, and gradually began to discover what we were fighting for and why we were willing to risk jail in the first place. (249) Many individuals did not realize what the Africans were really fighting for and why the government was harassing them, but slowly they were learning. â€Å"Seeing prominent and educated white women discussing serious matters with a black man on the basis of perfect equality could only lead to the weakening of the wardresses† apartheid assumptions. â€Å"(249) The government tried to separ ate whites from blacks so whites would not turn sympathetic towards the Africans fight. This scared feeling made the government acts and laws stricter and harsher towards the African struggle. Therefore, in South Africa, the movement received little help from the people who had influence in the country and the help they truly needed. While, in China, their movement involved their peasants and they had help, which truly helped their struggle. Mao stated that â€Å"In a very short time,†¦ several hundred million peasants will rise like a mighty storm†¦ They will sweep all the imperialists, warlords, corrupt officials, local tyrants and evil gentry into their graves†¦ â€Å"(Mao, 24) Here Mao stated that the peasants would destroy the landlords and corrupt individuals. He helped the peasants by making some reforms. He gave peasants land and made marriages a free choice. He also instituted the 100 Flowers Campaign. This campaign allowed peasants to speak out and have freedom of speech. We see here that the peasants had help in their struggle, while the Africans had very little. This assistance helped the peasants to get the things they were fighting for. Mandela†s Long Walk to Freedom, helped show the rise of an incredible individual, who fought with many of his countrymen against the oppression and apartheid of white supremacy in South Africa. Throughout the book, I have seen Nelson†s open-mindedness. Nelson always listened to communist ideas and Indian goals, eventhough he did not agree with them. Nelson faced many hardships through his struggle and this had to cause some resentment against his oppressors. But if anyone would not be bias in his writing, I would say it would be Nelson Mandela. He has showed in his book that he is great individual and that he will not let his past feeling cloud his writing. You can see his feelings in his book and that is what makes it so good, but I believe he does not hide anything from us on both sides of the stories. In conclusion, Mandela†s autobiography is a brilliant book written by an incredible individual. I wish I could of read the whole book for this essay, but that was not possible. It is hard to write an essay on the first 5 parts when I know some things that happened further in the book. I did not know if I should include that information in the essay, but I did not involve it. This book helped to show the other side of the story. We always hear the victor†s story and in this class we got to hear the other side of the story. How to cite A Long Walk to Freedom – Nelson Mandela, Papers

An Inspirational Teacher free essay sample

In one of the most powerful scenes in the film, Erin draws a line in the center of the classroom and divides the students into two groups. She then asks a series of questions, telling the students to step up to the line if their answer is yes. †¢ Do you own the new Puff Daddy CD? †¢ Have you seen the movie Boyz in the Hood? †¢ Do you know anybody who has been in jail? †¢ Do you know where to get drugs? †¢ Have you ever been shot at? †¢ Have you have lost a friend to gang violence? †¢ Two friends? †¢ Three friends?As the students stand on the line, they realize they are standing face-to-face with those of other races, backgrounds, and tribes. They realize that they share certain common experiences despite their differences. The Line Game is a powerful way to practice empathy and openness. Erin tries to connect with her students by talking their language and by referring to cultural artifacts they are familiar with but they immediately judge her as just another white person trying to make them over. We will write a custom essay sample on An Inspirational Teacher or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Nothing works until she confiscates an ugly racial cartoon that one student has drawn of an African American in the class. She compares it to the kind of drawings of Jews that the Nazis used to inflame resentments in Germany. But to her surprise, Erin discovers that her students know nothing about the Holocaust and the persecution suffered by the Jews. She likens the Nazis to a street gang just protecting their own. Erin then hands out blank journals and tells the students she wants them to write something in them every day.They wont be graded, and she will only read them if they give her permission. For many of them, this is the first time they have been empowered to share their feelings and ideas with others. Another time she has them play the Line Game (see Spiritual Moment in Movies at right), and they discover that they share many feelings in common. Next, she decides to have them read The Diary of Anne Frank, followed by a trip the Los Angeles Holocaust Museum. A dinner with several survivors enables the students to further empathize with others who have dealt with intolerance, hatred, and violence.Erins most effective program comes with a visit to the school by Miep Gies (Pat Carroll), the Dutch woman who provided a hiding place for the Franks. The students have written her letters and consider her a hero, but she tells them they are heroes, one and all. Erins commitment to transforming her students attitudes and opportunities undergoes many shocks and setbacks. She has to take part-time jobs to buy books for them and to finance several outings. Her husband, Scott (Patrick Dempsey), grows increasingly irritated by her passion for the work.Her father (Scott Glenn), who inspired her with his idealism, also has a hard time accepting all the time and energy she devotes to teaching. But in the end, all this pays off for Erin as the students find common ground and form a creative community of sharing. Among those who stories stand out are Eva (April Lee Hernandez), a fiery Latino; Andre (Mario), a tough African-American; Marcus (Jason Finn), an African-American who has been living on the street; and Sindy (Jacyn Ngan), a Cambodian teenager who spent years in a refugee camp.This inspiring and thought-provoking movie is based on the book The Freedom Writers Diary by the Freedom Writers with Erin Gruwell. Not only does this story pay tribute to a teacher who makes an enormous contribution to the lives of her students, it also celebrates the unity th at can arise out of diversity when individuals break down the walls that separate them from others. Right now the communities and nations of the world need to study the spiritual meaning of unity and the beauty that can arise out of the dignity of difference.

Resource Based View free essay sample

Resource based view theories (RBV), is a business management tool used to determine that strategic resources available to a company. It stems from the principle that the source of the firms competitive advantage lies in their internal resources, as opposed to their positioning in the external environment. (Barney, 1995). In other word, RBV of the firm predicts that certain types of resources owned and controlled firm have the potential and promise to generate competitive advantage and eventually superior firm performance (Ainuddin et al, 2007). The fundamental principle of the RBV is that the basis of competitive advantage of a firm lies primarily in the application of valuable resources at the firm’s disposal (Warnerfelt, 1984) The significance of RBV is giving the advantage for a starting point for analysis of the relative strength and weaknesses of firms. In some extent, RBV helps to explain why some resources are more advantage-generating than others and also why resources asymmetries and consequent competitive advantages persist even in competition of open competition. We will write a custom essay sample on Resource Based View or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page According to Fahy (2000), the essential element of RBV are as follows: (i) sustainable competitive advantage and superior performance; (ii) the characteristics and types of advantage-generating resources, and (iii) strategic choices by management. In order to implement the RVB theory, there are depending on how the resources fulfill the VRIN criteria, which is Valuable, Rare, Imperfectly Imitable and Non-Substitutable. For Valuable, it about how a resource must enable a firm to employ a value-creating strategy by either outperforming its competitors or reduce its own weaknesses, while Rare means the valuable firm resources possessed by large numbers of competing firms cannot be sources of either a competitive advantage or a sustainable competitive advantage. Imperfectly Imitable is about if the valuable resource of firm are not able to duplicate by competitor, it can contribute to competitive advantage and lastly Non-substitutable means how the resource is potentially value-creating and imperfectly imitable, an equally important aspect is lack f substitutability. In conclusion, in term of competitive advantage, RBV theory is indeed crucial as it can be used as a conceptual guideline for business organization in particular to enhance their competitive advantage position and performance via application and manipulation of indentified internal organizational resources, capabilities and systems in orde r to enhancing firm performance.

Topic Ideas For Your Political Science Essay

Topic Ideas For Your Political Science EssayIn seeking the topics to write for your political science essay, you must be aware of what questions you are likely to have to answer. Although all essay topics are not created equal, as all political science courses vary in topic description, degree requirements, and research skills, the ones that will be most useful to you will be those that will allow you to explore the various areas of your subject. The following topics are generally considered the best ones to write.There are different kinds of subjects that you will need to address in a political science essay. These topics include international politics, economic history, cultural studies, and other related subjects. In many cases, you will be permitted to write an entire political science essay on only one subject. However, this option is also limited by the actual number of subjects that you can cover in a course.In the end, you will need to use the three basic principles to help y ou craft your essay's main points. First, you must make sure that the subject matter you choose to discuss is as relevant as possible to the one you are writing for. After all, if you have never experienced a similar situation before, you will not be able to relate what you know about something. Second, you should be able to demonstrate how your knowledge of the subject relates to the students in your course.Finally, you should be able to clearly articulate why you believe your subject matter can create strong academic freedom. If your arguments will be met with disapproval from fellow students, or if they are questioned by your advisor, it will be difficult to give you the best essay topics for political science.When choosing topics, it is a good idea to think about what you need to cover more specifically, as well as which subjects are more common. Sometimes, students are much more interested in reading essays on food and culture, rather than one on political economy. Other areas that are often less studied include religion, war, and world news.What you ultimately choose for your essay topics for political science will largely depend on your own interests and needs. While some students will want to study every aspect of the subject, others may have a specific theme in mind. You will have the best chance of having success if you have a personal preference, and then utilize the resources available to you to help you reach that preference.As you consider writing the essay topics for political science, it is important to remember that the topics you choose will depend on what type of experience you hope to create. If you have a particular reason for studying political economy, it is important to make sure that your chosen topic is directly related to that experience.

The Disease of Drug Addiction free essay sample

For example, in his capacity as the director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, Alan Leshner wrote that the reason we ought to think of addiction as a disease is that it ‘is tied to changes in brain structure and function’(Leshner,1997). This reasoning is echoed in the work of several other authors. Heyman, Heather and Alexander, among others, have challenged the disease status of addiction on primarily empirical grounds (Heyman, 2001; Heather, 1992; Alexander, 1988). Philosophical accounts of disease, which attempt to clarify the concept, come in many shapes and sizes. For example, Boorse argues for a naturalistic conception of disease in which a disease must be reflected in a loss of function in an organ (Boorse, 1977). At the other end of the spectrum, Nordenfelt argues for a normative conception, which defines diseases as conditions which prevent us from meeting our ‘vital goals’ (Nordenfelt, 1995). It is still an open question whether Boorse’s view, Nordenfelt’s view or some other view gives the best rendering of what we mean when we call something a disease, but the published accounts can support the claim that changes in brain structure and function are enough to constitute a disease. We will write a custom essay sample on The Disease of Drug Addiction or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The concept of addiction as a neurobiological disease has taken hold, thanks largely to the efforts of both NIDA and the World Health Organization (WHO) that addiction is a disease (NIDA, 2009 ; WHO, 2004) Substance Dependence or Drug Addiction† The term â€Å"substance dependence† has gained great currency because of its use in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The DSM, both in its revision of the third edition (DSM- III- R; American Psychiatric Association [APA] 1987) and in its most recent edition (DSM- IV; APA 1994), avoids the term addiction, preferring instead to use the diagnoses of substance abuse and dependence, collectively referred to as substance use disorders. Beginning with DSM-III-R, the criteria used to diagnose substance use disorders were applied more or less equally to all of the substances that are commonly mis-used by individuals. In the DSM, therefore, individuals are differentiated onto three mutually exclusive categories: no substance use disorder, abuse only, or dependence. With this approach, abuse is diagnosed only if the individual does not meet the criteria for dependence. Accordingly, an individual meeting the criteria for both abuse and dependence is diagnosed only with dependence. The most recent text revision of the DSM (DSM-IV-TR; APA 2000, p. 192) identifies impaired control over substance use as the essential feature of dependence, which is â€Å"a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual continues use of the substance despite significant substance-related problems. † The dependence syndrome, which forms the basis for the diagnostic approach used in DSM-III-R, was first described for alcohol by Edwards and Gross (1976); it was later broadened to include other drugs (Edwards et al. 1981). However, as was true for DSM-III-R (APA 1987), the inclusion of abuse as a distinct category in DSM-IV deviated from the purely dimensional approach (in which all dependence occurs on a continuum, varying from no dependence symptoms to severe dependence) taken by Edwards and colleagues. This dimensional approach recently has been supported by findings from a large, nationally representative sample of more than 43,000 people. Saha and colleagues (2006) found that, except for alcohol-related legal problems, all DSM-IV criteria for alcohol abuse and dependence formed a continuum of alcohol use disorder severity. Moreover, only one of four diagnostic criteria for alcohol abuse (i. e. , hazardous use) fell among other criteria associated with mild dependence, whereas the other three abuse criteria clustered with the most severe symptoms of dependence. These findings call into question the distinction between abuse and dependence and the identification of abuse as being milder than dependence. O’Brien and colleagues (2006) have argued against the use of the term substance dependence, calling for a renewed emphasis on addiction. Dependence, they pointed out, is often confused with physical dependence (i. e. the adaptations that result in withdrawal symptoms when substance use is discontinued), which can occur with therapeutic applications of a variety of medications. This terminological confusion may make clinicians reluctant to prescribe pain medications, for example, for fear of causing addiction. By emphasizing the behavioral aspects of compulsive substance use, addiction captures the chronic, relapsing, and compulsive nature of substance use that occurs despite the associated negative consequences. On that basis, these authors urged the APA to restore the use of the term addiction in the DSM-V, which currently is in development. A disadvantage of the term addiction, however, is that it often is used pejoratively and can lead practitioners to avoid its use for fear of stigmatizing their patients and damaging their relationship with them. Further, the term addiction has been used so widely and variably that, like â€Å"alcoholism,† its meaning has been diluted, substantially limiting its value. The terminology used to describe alcohol and other drug use disorders is of key importance to both the study and the clinical care of people suffering from these conditions (Kranzler, Ting-Kai; 2008). Addiction Is a Disease Drug addiction is a compulsive behavior that creates a desire to use a dangerous substance, despite the health repercussions and sometimes irreversible consequences. Drug addiction is a chronic, often relapsing brain disease. It is important not to confuse drug addiction with drug dependency, drug dependency does not always manifest into drug addiction. Understanding what happens in the brain with addiction is key to understanding drug addiction. Once a brain is exposed to a substance it changes.

Pinecone Fish Facts and Information

Pinecone Fish Facts and Information The pinecone fish (Monocentris japonica) is also known as the  pineapple fish, knightfish, soldierfish, Japanese pineapple fish, and dick bride-groom fish. Its distinctive markings leave no doubt as to how it got the name pinecone or pineapple fish: it looks a bit like both and is easy to spot. Pinecone fish are classed in the Class Actinopterygii.  This class is known as ray-finned fishes because their fins are supported by sturdy spines.   Characteristics Pinecone fish grow to a maximum size of about 7 inches but are usually 4 to 5 inches in length. The pinecone fish is bright yellow in color with distinctive, black-outlined scales. They also have a black lower jaw and a small tail. Curiously, they have a light-producing organ on each side of their head. These are known as photophores, and they produce a symbiotic bacteria that makes the light visible.The light is produced by luminescent bacteria, and its function is not known. Some say that it may be used to improve vision, find prey, or communicate with other fish. Classification This is how the pinecone fish is scientifically classified: Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: ActinopterygiiOrder: Beryciformes  Family: Monocentridae  Genus: Monocentris  Species: japonica Habitat and Distribution The pinecone fish are found in the Indo-West Pacific Ocean, including in the Red Sea, around South Africa and Mauritius, Indonesia, Southern Japan, New Zealand, and Australia. They prefer areas with coral reefs, caves, and rocks. They are commonly found in waters between 65 to 656 feet (20 to 200 meters) deep. They may be found swimming together in schools. Fun Facts Here are a few more fun facts about the pinecone fish: It is popular in tropical aquariums because of its unique appearance. Despite that popularity, the pinecone fish is known to be hard to keep.They eat live brine shrimp and are more active at night. During the day, they tend to hide more.There are four species of pinecone fish:  Monocentris japonica, Monocentris meozelanicus, Monocentris reedi,  and  Cleidopus gloriamaris.  They are all members of the Family  Monocentridae.They are usually a yellow or orange color with scales outlined in black.  Ã‚  The fish are considered on the more expensive side, making them less common in home aquariums. Sources Bray,  D. J.2011,  Japanese Pineapplefish,  , in Fishes of Australia. Accessed January 31, 2015.Monocentris japonicaMasuda, H., K. Amaoka, C. Araga, T. Uyeno and T. Yoshino, 1984. The fishes of the Japanese Archipelago. Vol. 1. Tokai University Press, Tokyo, Japan. 437 p., via FishBase. Accessed January 31, 2015.  Mehen, B. Weird Fish of the Week: Pinecone Fish. Practical Fishkeeping. Accessed January 31, 2015.